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Päivi Järvensivu Institute of Biomedicine, Research Centre for Integrative Physiology and Pharmacology and Turku Center for Disease Modeling, University of Turku, Turku, Finland

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Taija Heinosalo Institute of Biomedicine, Research Centre for Integrative Physiology and Pharmacology and Turku Center for Disease Modeling, University of Turku, Turku, Finland

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Janne Hakkarainen Institute of Biomedicine, Research Centre for Integrative Physiology and Pharmacology and Turku Center for Disease Modeling, University of Turku, Turku, Finland

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Pauliina Kronqvist Institute of Biomedicine, Research Center for Cancer, Infections and Immunity, University of Turku and Department of Pathology, Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland

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Niina Saarinen Institute of Biomedicine, Research Centre for Integrative Physiology and Pharmacology and Turku Center for Disease Modeling, University of Turku, Turku, Finland

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Matti Poutanen Institute of Biomedicine, Research Centre for Integrative Physiology and Pharmacology and Turku Center for Disease Modeling, University of Turku, Turku, Finland

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). This indicated that the lesions were dependent on ESR signaling. We previously reported that HSD17B1-induced imbalances in sex steroid hormones were linked to the formation of preneoplastic changes in other estrogen target tissues, such as the ovary and

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Uriel Clemente-Gutierrez Department of Surgical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA

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Carolina R C Pieterman Department of Endocrine Oncology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands

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Michael S Lui Department of Surgical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA

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Thomas Szabo Yamashita Department of Surgical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA

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Andrés Tame-Elorduy Department of Surgical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA

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Bernice L Huang Department of Surgical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA

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Aditya S Shirali Department of Surgical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA

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Derek J Erstad Department of Surgical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA

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Jeffrey E Lee Department of Surgical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA

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Sarah B Fisher Department of Surgical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA

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Paul H Graham Department of Surgical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA

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Elizabeth G Grubbs Department of Surgical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA

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Steven G Waguespack Department of Endocrine Neoplasia and Hormonal Disorders, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA

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Chaan S Ng Department of Diagnostic Radiology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA

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Nancy Perrier Department of Surgical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA

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et al. 1992 ), adenomas producing cortisol ( Simonds et al. 2012 , Ventura et al. 2019 ) or sex steroids ( Schaefer et al. 2008 ), and pheochromocytomas ( Okada et al. 2016 ) also have been reported. Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is rarely

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Ada S Cheung Department of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine (Austin Health), Austin Health, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia
Department of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine (Austin Health), Austin Health, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia

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Jeffrey D Zajac Department of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine (Austin Health), Austin Health, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia
Department of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine (Austin Health), Austin Health, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia

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Mathis Grossmann Department of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine (Austin Health), Austin Health, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia
Department of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine (Austin Health), Austin Health, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia

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1/Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin signaling ( Fig. 1 ; Bhasin et al . 2011 , Serra et al . 2013 ). Figure 1 Potential contributors to muscle loss in ADT. +, positive effect; −, negative effect. Sex steroid deficiency resulting from ADT leads to

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Yasuhiro Nakamura
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Takashi Suzuki
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Masao Nakabayashi
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Mareyuki Endoh
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Kazuhiro Sakamoto
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Yoshiki Mikami
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Takuya Moriya
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Akihiro Ito
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Shoki Takahashi
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Shogo Yamada
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Yoichi Arai
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Hironobu Sasano
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1994 ). Therefore, 5α-reductases are considered to play important roles as local regulators of androgen and other sex steroid actions in prostate cancer tissues. The type 1 isozyme of 5α-reductase is located on the distal short arm of chromosome 5, and

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Andreas Machens Department of Visceral, Vascular and Endocrine Surgery, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany

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Kerstin Lorenz Department of Visceral, Vascular and Endocrine Surgery, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany

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Frank Weber Department of General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, Division of Endocrine Surgery, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany

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Henning Dralle Department of Visceral, Vascular and Endocrine Surgery, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany
Department of General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, Division of Endocrine Surgery, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany

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established that sex steroid hormones interact with estrogen receptor alpha (ERα), estrogen receptor beta (ERβ) and androgen receptor (AR), thereby inducing changes in gene expression in the microenvironment of tumors ( Clocchiatti et al. 2016 ). ERβ was the

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Habibur P Rahman Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham

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Johannes Hofland Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

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Paul A Foster Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham
Centre for Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Birmingham Healthcare Partners, Birmingham, UK

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have a higher precedence than genetic associations in determining risk of prostate cancer. Furthermore, environmental and lifestyle factors, diet in particular, fundamentally alter endogenous hormones including sex steroids ( Barazani et al . 2014

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Melissa Gamat University of Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA

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Douglas G McNeel University of Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA

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immunity, it is likely that sex steroids such as testosterone and estrogen can affect immune system function. Sex steroids have profound effects on the immune system, as summarized in Fig. 1 . Testosterone can be converted to DHT by 5α-reductase or

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Wassim Chemaitilly
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Charles A Sklar Division of Endocrinology, Department of Pediatrics, Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, One Children's Hospital Drive, 4401 Penn Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15224, USA

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radiation-induced skeletal dysplasia ( Clayton & Shalet 1991 a , b ). Pubertal staging is important as concurrent precocious puberty can mask the clinical signs of GHD with seemingly normal growth rates owing to the inappropriate secretion of sex steroids

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Yayun Liang
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Rolf A Brekken
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Salman M Hyder
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–3655. Hyder SM 2006 Sex-steroid regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor in breast cancer. Endocrine Related Cancer (In Press). Hyder SM & Stancel GM 1999 Regulation of angiogenic

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Robert X-D Song Department of Internal Medicine, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903, USA

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Ping Fan Department of Internal Medicine, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903, USA

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Wei Yue Department of Internal Medicine, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903, USA

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Yucai Chen Department of Internal Medicine, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903, USA

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Richard J Santen Department of Internal Medicine, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903, USA

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recognized by antibodies directed against ERα ligand-binding domain ( Toran-Allerand et al. 2002 ); (iv) sex steroid-binding protein acting in concert with a membrane protein megalin ( Catalano et al. 1997 , Hammes et al. 2005 ); (v) G

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