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). This indicated that the lesions were dependent on ESR signaling. We previously reported that HSD17B1-induced imbalances in sex steroid hormones were linked to the formation of preneoplastic changes in other estrogen target tissues, such as the ovary and
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et al. 1992 ), adenomas producing cortisol ( Simonds et al. 2012 , Ventura et al. 2019 ) or sex steroids ( Schaefer et al. 2008 ), and pheochromocytomas ( Okada et al. 2016 ) also have been reported. Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is rarely
Department of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine (Austin Health), Austin Health, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia
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Department of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine (Austin Health), Austin Health, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia
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Department of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine (Austin Health), Austin Health, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia
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1/Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin signaling ( Fig. 1 ; Bhasin et al . 2011 , Serra et al . 2013 ). Figure 1 Potential contributors to muscle loss in ADT. +, positive effect; −, negative effect. Sex steroid deficiency resulting from ADT leads to
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1994 ). Therefore, 5α-reductases are considered to play important roles as local regulators of androgen and other sex steroid actions in prostate cancer tissues. The type 1 isozyme of 5α-reductase is located on the distal short arm of chromosome 5, and
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Department of General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, Division of Endocrine Surgery, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
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established that sex steroid hormones interact with estrogen receptor alpha (ERα), estrogen receptor beta (ERβ) and androgen receptor (AR), thereby inducing changes in gene expression in the microenvironment of tumors ( Clocchiatti et al. 2016 ). ERβ was the
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have a higher precedence than genetic associations in determining risk of prostate cancer. Furthermore, environmental and lifestyle factors, diet in particular, fundamentally alter endogenous hormones including sex steroids ( Barazani et al . 2014
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immunity, it is likely that sex steroids such as testosterone and estrogen can affect immune system function. Sex steroids have profound effects on the immune system, as summarized in Fig. 1 . Testosterone can be converted to DHT by 5α-reductase or
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radiation-induced skeletal dysplasia ( Clayton & Shalet 1991 a , b ). Pubertal staging is important as concurrent precocious puberty can mask the clinical signs of GHD with seemingly normal growth rates owing to the inappropriate secretion of sex steroids
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–3655. Hyder SM 2006 Sex-steroid regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor in breast cancer. Endocrine Related Cancer (In Press). Hyder SM & Stancel GM 1999 Regulation of angiogenic
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recognized by antibodies directed against ERα ligand-binding domain ( Toran-Allerand et al. 2002 ); (iv) sex steroid-binding protein acting in concert with a membrane protein megalin ( Catalano et al. 1997 , Hammes et al. 2005 ); (v) G