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Shyh-Han Tan Department of Cancer Biology, Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, 233 South 10th Street, BLSB 309, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19107, USA

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Marja T Nevalainen Department of Cancer Biology, Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, 233 South 10th Street, BLSB 309, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19107, USA

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, Kindblom et al . 2002 , 2003 ). Autocrine PRL in prostate and breast tissue became important findings, since local production of PRL provided an explanation as to why the results of studies trying to link breast or prostate cancer incidence or progression

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Annamaria Biroccio Experimental Chemotherapy Laboratory, Regina Elena Cancer Institute, Via delle Messi d’Oro 156, 00158 Rome, Italy

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Carlo Leonetti Experimental Chemotherapy Laboratory, Regina Elena Cancer Institute, Via delle Messi d’Oro 156, 00158 Rome, Italy

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Introduction Prostate cancer is the most frequently diagnosed malignancy, apart from skin cancers, in developed countries, and is a leading cause of cancer-related deaths in men ( Feldman & Feldman 2001 ). The risk of prostate

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Lisa M Butler School of Medicine, University of Adelaide, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

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Margaret M Centenera School of Medicine, University of Adelaide, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

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Johannes V Swinnen Laboratory of Lipid Metabolism and Cancer, Department of Oncology, LKI – Leuven Cancer Institute, KU Leuven – University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

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Androgens and prostate cancer Prostate cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer, and the second leading cause of cancer-related death, in men in the developed world ( Jemal et al . 2010 ). In 1941, Huggins and Hodges demonstrated that

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Rayzel C Fernandes Dame Roma Mitchell Cancer Research Laboratories, Adelaide Medical School, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
Freemasons Foundation Centre for Men’s Health, Adelaide Medical School, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

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Theresa E Hickey Dame Roma Mitchell Cancer Research Laboratories, Adelaide Medical School, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

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Wayne D Tilley Dame Roma Mitchell Cancer Research Laboratories, Adelaide Medical School, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
Freemasons Foundation Centre for Men’s Health, Adelaide Medical School, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

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Luke A Selth Dame Roma Mitchell Cancer Research Laboratories, Adelaide Medical School, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
Freemasons Foundation Centre for Men’s Health, Adelaide Medical School, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

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Introduction The androgen receptor (AR) signaling axis is critical for normal prostatic development and maintenance and is the major driver of prostate cancer (PCa) growth and disease progression. Androgens such as testosterone and its more

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Veronica R Placencio-Hickok Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA

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Anisha Madhav Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA

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Sungjin Kim Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Research Center, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA

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Frank Duong Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA

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Bryan Angara Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA

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Zhenqiu Liu Department of Public Health Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, Hershey, Pennsylvania, USA

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Neil A Bhowmick Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
Department of Research, Veterans Administration Greater Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA

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Introduction Prostate cancer (PCa) was estimated to be the leading diagnosed cancer type in men, accounting for 19% of all newly diagnosed cancers in in 2017 ( Siegel et al. 2017 ). As high-risk patients are increasingly undergoing

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Fernand Labrie 2795 Laurier Boulevard Suite 500, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada G1V 4M7

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Introduction Prostate cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer and the second cause of cancer death in men in North America ( Siegel et al . 2013 ). In fact, one in eight men will be diagnosed with prostate cancer during his lifetime. At such

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Masaki Shiota Department of Urology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan

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Satoshi Endo United Graduate School of Medical Information Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan
Center for One Medicine Innovative Translational Research (COMIT), Gifu University, Gifu, Japan

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Shigehiro Tsukahara Department of Urology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan

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Tokiyoshi Tanegashima Department of Urology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan

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Satoshi Kobayashi Department of Urology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan

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Takashi Matsumoto Department of Urology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan

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Masatoshi Eto Department of Urology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan

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, and 5α-reductase converts it to the more potent dihydrotestosterone (DHT) in peripheral target tissues, including the prostate ( Penning et al. 2008 ). After malignant transformation, prostate cancer remains dependent on AR signaling for its growth

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Serk In Park Department of Periodontics and Oral Medicine, Department of Pathology, University of Michigan School of Dentistry, 1011 North University Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA

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Laurie K McCauley Department of Periodontics and Oral Medicine, Department of Pathology, University of Michigan School of Dentistry, 1011 North University Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
Department of Periodontics and Oral Medicine, Department of Pathology, University of Michigan School of Dentistry, 1011 North University Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA

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Introduction Prostate cancer is the second most frequently diagnosed cancer and the sixth leading cause of cancer-related death in males worldwide, notwithstanding the improved early detection methods and therapeutic modalities ( Jemal et al . 2011

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Simone de Brot Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Cancer Biology, Department of International Health, Clinical Research Center, Department of Pharmacology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Nottingham LE12 5RD, UK

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Atara Ntekim Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Cancer Biology, Department of International Health, Clinical Research Center, Department of Pharmacology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Nottingham LE12 5RD, UK

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Ryan Cardenas Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Cancer Biology, Department of International Health, Clinical Research Center, Department of Pharmacology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Nottingham LE12 5RD, UK

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Victoria James Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Cancer Biology, Department of International Health, Clinical Research Center, Department of Pharmacology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Nottingham LE12 5RD, UK

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Cinzia Allegrucci Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Cancer Biology, Department of International Health, Clinical Research Center, Department of Pharmacology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Nottingham LE12 5RD, UK

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David M Heery Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Cancer Biology, Department of International Health, Clinical Research Center, Department of Pharmacology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Nottingham LE12 5RD, UK

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David O Bates Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Cancer Biology, Department of International Health, Clinical Research Center, Department of Pharmacology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Nottingham LE12 5RD, UK

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Niels Ødum Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Cancer Biology, Department of International Health, Clinical Research Center, Department of Pharmacology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Nottingham LE12 5RD, UK

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Jenny L Persson Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Cancer Biology, Department of International Health, Clinical Research Center, Department of Pharmacology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Nottingham LE12 5RD, UK

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Nigel P Mongan Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Cancer Biology, Department of International Health, Clinical Research Center, Department of Pharmacology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Nottingham LE12 5RD, UK
Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Cancer Biology, Department of International Health, Clinical Research Center, Department of Pharmacology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Nottingham LE12 5RD, UK

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Prostate cancer: the molecular mechanisms of carcinogenesis and the role of androgens Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common malignancy affecting western men ( Ferlay et al . 2013 , Siegel et al . 2015 ), and it is estimated to account for more

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Afaf Aldahish Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana at Monroe, Monroe, Louisiana, USA

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Ajay Kale Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana at Monroe, Monroe, Louisiana, USA

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Ahmed Aljameeli Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana at Monroe, Monroe, Louisiana, USA

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Girish V Shah Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana at Monroe, Monroe, Louisiana, USA

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Introduction Prostate cancer (PC) is the most frequently diagnosed cancer in men, exceeded only by lung cancer as the leading cause of cancer-related mortality among men ( Ferlay et al. 2010 ). Despite recent advances in the field, effective

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