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Arthur S Tischler Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Tufts Medical Center and Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

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Judith Favier Université Paris cité, Inserm UMR970 PARCC, Equipe Labellisée par la Ligue contre le cancer, Paris, France

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Experimental models for pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma are needed for basic pathobiology research and for preclinical testing of drugs to improve treatment of patients with these tumors, especially patients with metastatic disease. The paucity of models reflects the rarity of the tumors, their slow growth, and their genetic complexity. While there are no human cell line or xenograft models that faithfully recapitulate the genotype or phenotype of these tumors, the past decade has shown progress in development and utilization of animal models, including a mouse and a rat model for SDH-deficient pheochromocytoma associated with germline Sdhb mutations. There are also innovative approaches to preclinical testing of potential treatments in primary cultures of human tumors. Challenges with these primary cultures include how to account for heterogeneous cell populations that will vary depending on the initial tumor dissociation and how to distinguish drug effects on neoplastic vs normal cells. The feasible duration for maintaining cultures must also be balanced against time required to reliably assess drug efficacy. Considerations potentially important for all in vitro studies include species differences, phenotype drift, changes that occur in the transition from tissue to cell culture, and the O2 concentration in which cultures are maintained.

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Carolyn M Klinge Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Genetics, Center for Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky, USA

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( Djebali et al . 2012 ). In addition to GENECODE, the FANTOM (Functional Annotation of Mammalian Genomes) project is creating a comprehensive catalog of transcripts encoded in human, mouse, rat, dog, Rhesus monkey and chicken genomes ( http

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