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Trevor M Penning Perelman School of Medicine Center of Excellence in Environmental Toxicology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6084, USA

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emerged in the tumor. This form of the disease is known as castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), which is almost uniformly fatal. The adaptive androgen signaling in CRPC cells can occur due to intratumoral androgen biosynthesis and/or changes in the

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Zhu Wang School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
Department of Urology, People’s Hospital of Longhua, Shenzhen, China

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Dinglan Wu School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
The Clinical Innovation & Research Center, Shenzhen Hospital, Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, China

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Chi-Fai Ng Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

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Jeremy Yuen-Chun Teoh Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

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Shan Yu School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

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Yuliang Wang School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

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Franky L Chan School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

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antagonist-to-agonist switch due to AR mutation and intra-tumoral androgen biosynthesis, are critically involved in its advanced progression to androgen-insensitive and metastatic stages (castration-resistant or hormone-refractory prostate cancer CRPC) and

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Ying Ying Sung Cancer Biology and Pharmacology, Genome Institute of Singapore, A*STAR (Agency for Science, Technology and Research), 60 Biopolis Street, #02-01 Genome, Singapore 138672, Singapore

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Edwin Cheung Cancer Biology and Pharmacology, Genome Institute of Singapore, A*STAR (Agency for Science, Technology and Research), 60 Biopolis Street, #02-01 Genome, Singapore 138672, Singapore

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AstraZeneca, London, UK) has been utilized as standard treatments for patients with advanced prostate cancers. Despite initial good responses, tumors invariably recur and develop into a lethal form of the disease, known as castration-resistant prostate cancer

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Kate L Mahon Department of Medical Oncology, University of Sydney, Cancer Research Program, Sydney Cancer Centre, Missenden Road, Camperdown, New South Wales 2050, Australia
Department of Medical Oncology, University of Sydney, Cancer Research Program, Sydney Cancer Centre, Missenden Road, Camperdown, New South Wales 2050, Australia
Department of Medical Oncology, University of Sydney, Cancer Research Program, Sydney Cancer Centre, Missenden Road, Camperdown, New South Wales 2050, Australia

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Susan M Henshall Department of Medical Oncology, University of Sydney, Cancer Research Program, Sydney Cancer Centre, Missenden Road, Camperdown, New South Wales 2050, Australia

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Robert L Sutherland Department of Medical Oncology, University of Sydney, Cancer Research Program, Sydney Cancer Centre, Missenden Road, Camperdown, New South Wales 2050, Australia

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Lisa G Horvath Department of Medical Oncology, University of Sydney, Cancer Research Program, Sydney Cancer Centre, Missenden Road, Camperdown, New South Wales 2050, Australia
Department of Medical Oncology, University of Sydney, Cancer Research Program, Sydney Cancer Centre, Missenden Road, Camperdown, New South Wales 2050, Australia
Department of Medical Oncology, University of Sydney, Cancer Research Program, Sydney Cancer Centre, Missenden Road, Camperdown, New South Wales 2050, Australia

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cancer initially responds to anti-androgen therapy; however, it eventually becomes resistant to hormonal manipulation. Chemotherapy remains the only treatment option in the setting of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) providing modest survival

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Rhonda L Bitting Divisions of Medical Oncology and Urology, Duke Cancer Institute, Duke University, DUMC Box 102002, Durham, North Carolina 27710, USA

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Andrew J Armstrong Divisions of Medical Oncology and Urology, Duke Cancer Institute, Duke University, DUMC Box 102002, Durham, North Carolina 27710, USA

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chemical or surgical castration is the first-line therapy for metastatic disease. Response to therapy, however, is temporary, and patients invariably progress to castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC; Rini & Small 2002 ). The TAX327 trial established

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Peng Ning Department of Histology and Embryology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, China
Department of Tumor Radiotherapy, 3rd Hospital of PLA, Bao Ji, China

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Jia-guo Zhong Section 2 of Department of Surgery, 42nd Hospital of PLA, Jiajiang County Leshan City, Sichuan, China

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Fan Jiang Department of Tumor Radiotherapy, 3rd Hospital of PLA, Bao Ji, China

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Yi Zhang Department of Tumor Radiotherapy, 3rd Hospital of PLA, Bao Ji, China

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Jie Zhao Department of Histology and Embryology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, China

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Feng Tian Department of Thoracic Surgery, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, China

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Wei Li Department of Histology and Embryology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, China

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castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) ( Karzai et al . 2015 ). Several chemical agents such as docetaxel, although previously reported to improve overall survival in men with CRPC, fail to prolong the prognosis of CRPC patients by >6months ( Suzman

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Howard I Scher
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Grant Buchanan
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William Gerald
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Lisa M Butler
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Wayne D Tilley
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prostate cancers after the failure of AAT, and in castrate-resistant CWR22 xenografts ( Anzick et al. 1997 , Gregory et al. 2001 b ). In clinical studies, the concentrations of key AR coregulators, including p300/CBP, have been shown to increase

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Isabel Coutinho Dame Roma Mitchell Cancer Research Laboratories, School of Medicine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
Freemasons Foundation Centre for Men’s Health, School of Medicine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

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Tanya K Day Dame Roma Mitchell Cancer Research Laboratories, School of Medicine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
Freemasons Foundation Centre for Men’s Health, School of Medicine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

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Wayne D Tilley Dame Roma Mitchell Cancer Research Laboratories, School of Medicine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
Freemasons Foundation Centre for Men’s Health, School of Medicine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

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Luke A Selth Dame Roma Mitchell Cancer Research Laboratories, School of Medicine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
Freemasons Foundation Centre for Men’s Health, School of Medicine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

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almost all men, development of resistance is inevitable, normally occurring within a period of 2–3 years. The resultant form of the disease, termed as castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), is incurable and lethal ( Scher et al . 2004 , Thoreson

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Zhi Long Department of Urology, Third Xiangya Hospital, Institute of Prostate Disease, Central South University, Changsha, China
Department of Urologic Sciences, Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

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Yinan Li Department of Urologic Sciences, Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

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Yu Gan Department of Urologic Sciences, Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Department of Urology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China

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Dongyu Zhao Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, Texas, USA
Department of Cardiothoracic Surgeries, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
Institute for Academic Medicine, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA

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Guangyu Wang Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, Texas, USA
Department of Cardiothoracic Surgeries, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
Institute for Academic Medicine, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA

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Ning Xie Department of Urologic Sciences, Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

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Jessica M Lovnicki Department of Urologic Sciences, Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

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Ladan Fazli Department of Urologic Sciences, Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

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Qi Cao Department of Urology and Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Cancer, Northwestern University Reinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA

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Kaifu Chen Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, Texas, USA
Department of Cardiothoracic Surgeries, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
Institute for Academic Medicine, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA

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Xuesen Dong Department of Urologic Sciences, Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

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in fully developed prostate in males, and whether HOXA10 regulates signal pathways during prostate cancer (PCa) development or tumor progression into the castrate-resistant stage. PCa is the most commonly diagnosed cancer in males. The primary

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Masaki Shiota Departments of, Urology, Anatomic Pathology, Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Department of Urology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan

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Ario Takeuchi Departments of, Urology, Anatomic Pathology, Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Department of Urology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan

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YooHyun Song Departments of, Urology, Anatomic Pathology, Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Department of Urology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan
Departments of, Urology, Anatomic Pathology, Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Department of Urology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan

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Akira Yokomizo Departments of, Urology, Anatomic Pathology, Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Department of Urology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan

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Eiji Kashiwagi Departments of, Urology, Anatomic Pathology, Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Department of Urology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan

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Takeshi Uchiumi Departments of, Urology, Anatomic Pathology, Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Department of Urology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan

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Kentaro Kuroiwa Departments of, Urology, Anatomic Pathology, Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Department of Urology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan

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Katsunori Tatsugami Departments of, Urology, Anatomic Pathology, Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Department of Urology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan

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Naohiro Fujimoto Departments of, Urology, Anatomic Pathology, Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Department of Urology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan

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Yoshinao Oda Departments of, Urology, Anatomic Pathology, Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Department of Urology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan

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Seiji Naito Departments of, Urology, Anatomic Pathology, Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Department of Urology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan

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HI Sawyers CL 2005 Biology of progressive, castration-resistant prostate cancer: directed therapies targeting the androgen-receptor signaling axis . Journal of Clinical Oncology 23 8253 – 8261 doi:10.1200/JCO.2005.03.4777 . Sharifi N

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