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Introduction The significance of androgens and other sex steroids during androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) continues as an area of further exploration over 70 years since Huggins and Hodges first described the androgen dependency of prostate
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features of DCIS in order to improve clinical outcome of breast carcinoma patients. It is well known that breast tissue is a target for sex steroids. Among the sex steroids, estrogens greatly contribute to the growth of IDC ( Vihko & Apter 1989 ) and anti
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important to note that, in an intracrine system, serum concentrations of hormones do not necessarily reflect the local hormonal activity in the target tissues. Sex steroids, such as estrogens and androgens, play important roles in various target
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Department of Gynecological Oncology, Department of Mathematics, Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Department of Molecular Bioenergetics, Academic Health Science Centre, Institute for Women's Health, Gynecological Cancer Research Centre, University College London, 149 Tottenham Road, London W1T 7DN, UK
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highest quintiles have a twofold increased risk of breast cancer ( Key et al . 2002 ). Since then, a number of studies have reported conflicting results on the association of serum sex steroid hormones and breast cancer risk ( Lamar et al . 2003
LSU Health Sciences Center New Orleans School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
Stanley S. Scott Cancer Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
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biological mechanisms through which insufficient physical activity and obesity promote cancer recurrence and death in this population remain poorly understood. Sex steroid hormones are hypothesized as a biological mediator of these associations ( McTiernan
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relentless rise in cancer. The goal of a cure remains. However, in practical terms, new affordable strategies are required for individuals affected by prostate or breast cancers to remain productive members of their families and society. The sex steroid
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Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
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levels of cholesterol and sex steroid hormones are risk factors of urological disease ( Allott & Hursting 2015 ). A correlation has been studied, relating a typical Western diet to an increase in the risk of urological disease ( Ito 2014 , YuPeng et al
Division of Cancer Epidemiology, Department of Medical Biosciences, Unit of Sexual and Reproductive Health, Departments of Population Health and Environmental Medicine, New York University Cancer Institute, Finnish Cancer Registry, School of Health Sciences, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, Public Health and Clinical Medicine: Nutritional Research, German Cancer Research Center, Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, Heidelberg 69120, Germany
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Division of Cancer Epidemiology, Department of Medical Biosciences, Unit of Sexual and Reproductive Health, Departments of Population Health and Environmental Medicine, New York University Cancer Institute, Finnish Cancer Registry, School of Health Sciences, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, Public Health and Clinical Medicine: Nutritional Research, German Cancer Research Center, Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, Heidelberg 69120, Germany
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Division of Cancer Epidemiology, Department of Medical Biosciences, Unit of Sexual and Reproductive Health, Departments of Population Health and Environmental Medicine, New York University Cancer Institute, Finnish Cancer Registry, School of Health Sciences, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, Public Health and Clinical Medicine: Nutritional Research, German Cancer Research Center, Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, Heidelberg 69120, Germany
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Division of Cancer Epidemiology, Department of Medical Biosciences, Unit of Sexual and Reproductive Health, Departments of Population Health and Environmental Medicine, New York University Cancer Institute, Finnish Cancer Registry, School of Health Sciences, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, Public Health and Clinical Medicine: Nutritional Research, German Cancer Research Center, Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, Heidelberg 69120, Germany
Division of Cancer Epidemiology, Department of Medical Biosciences, Unit of Sexual and Reproductive Health, Departments of Population Health and Environmental Medicine, New York University Cancer Institute, Finnish Cancer Registry, School of Health Sciences, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, Public Health and Clinical Medicine: Nutritional Research, German Cancer Research Center, Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, Heidelberg 69120, Germany
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Division of Cancer Epidemiology, Department of Medical Biosciences, Unit of Sexual and Reproductive Health, Departments of Population Health and Environmental Medicine, New York University Cancer Institute, Finnish Cancer Registry, School of Health Sciences, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, Public Health and Clinical Medicine: Nutritional Research, German Cancer Research Center, Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, Heidelberg 69120, Germany
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long periods of ovulatory cycles ( Fathalla 1971 ), retrograde menstrual flow ( Cramer & Xu 1995 ), and endogenous, as well as exogenous, hormonal exposure ( Risch 1998 ). Sex steroid hormones (androgens, progesterone, and estradiol (E 2 )) are likely
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of ovarian hormones. Since then, most studies have concentrated on developing our understanding of the role played by sex steroids in angiogenesis in uterine and ovarian tissue since there is evidence that neovascularization is influenced by ovarian
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